Ministry Of History

Confidence Motions, Collapsing Governments, and Snap Elections: Has Politics Always Been This Messy?

Political turmoil is sweeping through several key European countries, notably in France and Germany, collectively known as the so-called ‘engine’ of the EU. In France, President Macron’s dissolution of the National Assembly in June 2024 (after the far-right National Rally’s EU election success) backfired, with the resulting legislative election leading to a fragmented parliament with no governing majority. Macron’s appointment of Michel Barnier as prime minister led to further chaos when Barnier used Article 49.3 to force a budget bill through parliament without a vote, prompting a no-confidence motion that toppled the government on 4 December 2024. With elections barred until summer 2025, France has a new prime minister (François Bayrou), but still has the same deadlocked parliament, while public dissatisfaction with Macron, and calls for his resignation, have grown. Germany, meanwhile, saw its government collapse in November after budget disputes prompted Chancellor Olaf Scholz to sack Finance Minister Christian Lindner, leading Lindner’s FDP to quit the ‘Traffic Light’ coalition. Scholz lost a 16 December confidence vote, which has paved the way for a snap election on 23 February 2025. Polling indicates forming a governing coalition will be difficult, which threatens Germany’s stability. 

Elsewhere, Belgium is (at time of writing) still in protracted coalition negotiations after its June 2024 election yielded a highly fractured parliament, although this is a common occurrence in its unique constitutional structure. Bulgaria, in a prolonged political crisis since 2021, has held seven parliamentary elections in four years due to corruption scandals and fragmented coalitions, leaving the country in persistent deadlock.

With this in mind, I thought it would be fascinating to delve into some of recent history’s most politically turbulent periods. These are testing times for the democratic world, but hopefully what I’m going to tell you here will console you with the fact that democracy has always been messy!

The Weimar Republic (Germany) – 1919-1933

In 1918, after four years of horrific trench warfare, and with 2 million German soldiers dead, Germany lost the First World War. With this came the abolition of the semi-autocratic monarchy, and the country finally became a real democracy with universal suffrage and a powerful Reichstag (parliament). However, the Weimar Constitution allowed for proportional representation, which (as we see today) can lead to fragmented parliaments and unstable coalition governments. In its 14 year existence, the Weimar Republic had no less than nine general elections and 15 different chancellors (and therefore 15 different governments). The frequent changes in leadership made it difficult to establish strong, consistent governance. Added to this, were also both far-left (communist) and far-right (nationalist) groups opposed to the republic, who frequently engaged in uprisings (e.g., the Spartacist Uprising of 1919 and the Kapp Putsch of 1920). These challenges destabilised the government and undermined its legitimacy.

The political turmoil of Weimar Germany was greatly exacerbated by severe economic turmoil. After the war in 1919, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed harsh terms such as stripping Germany of land and of its army, but also crippling reparations. In order to pay off the reparations whilst also keeping the economy afloat, the German government started printing off money, which led to a massive devaluation of the Reichsmark (German currency) which itself led to hyperinflation. By November 1923, one US Dollar was equal to 4.2 trillion Reichsmarks. This helped worsen the general feeling of malaise and unrest throughout the country, which in turn exacerbated the political crisis. The economy stabilised somewhat after 1924 when the USA started to lend Germany money, but this would not last. With the Wall Street Crash in 1929 and the ensuing worldwide Great Depression, Germany’s economy was thrown back into turmoil.

In the 1930 election, following the aftermath of the Wall Street crash, the Nazis emerged as the second-largest party in the Reichstag, exploiting the economic turmoil. In the subsequent elections of 1932, the Nazis rose to become the largest party, paving the way for Adolf Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor in January 1933. The political and economic instability of the fragile Weimar Republic played a critical role in Hitler’s rise to power. It’s crucial to remember, though, that Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor was legal; he did not seize power. However, after the Reichstag fire in February 1933, he swiftly consolidated his authority, using the crisis to gain emergency powers from President Paul von Hindenburg.

May 68 (France) – May-June 1968

The May 1968 protests in France were a period of intense civil unrest, marked by widespread student occupations, general strikes, and mass demonstrations that effectively brought the country to a standstill. Initially sparked by student protests against capitalist structures, consumerism, and imperialism, the unrest quickly escalated following heavy police repression, leading to sympathy strikes that saw over 11 million workers join the protests. The clashes with police, street barricades, and confrontations in Paris’s Latin Quarter became iconic moments, while the government’s inability to suppress the unrest culminated in President Charles de Gaulle fleeing in secret to West Germany, plunging the government into chaos. The Grenelle accords, signed in late May, offered wage increases for workers, but the protests continued to gain momentum, leading de Gaulle to call for a snap election. Following the subsequent elections, de Gaulle’s Gaullist party emerged stronger than before, despite a significant loss in public support for his leadership style.

May 1968 is widely seen as a cultural and political turning point for France, representing both the potential for social revolution and the dangers of radical upheaval. While the protests ultimately failed to spark a full revolution, they did influence French society and politics, with the term soixante-huitard (a “68-er”) becoming emblematic of the era’s youth-driven movements. The legacy of May 1968 continues to shape France’s political discourse, marking a moment when traditional collective action was questioned and a new era of social movements began.

Brexit, Boris Johnson & Liz Truss (UK) – 2016-2022

On 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom narrowly voted to leave the European Union, triggering economic turmoil as the Pound Sterling dropped in value and political upheaval when Prime Minister David Cameron resigned the following day. Succeeded by Theresa May, who sought to stabilise the country, her decision to call a snap election in 2017 backfired, losing her majority and forcing her to govern with the support of Northern Ireland’s DUP. May initiated Brexit negotiations, but her withdrawal agreement faced three crushing defeats in Parliament, including the largest government defeat in British history in January 2019. Mounting discontent within her party led to her resignation on 24 May 2019.

Boris Johnson replaced May in June 2019 and immediately faced controversy for proroguing (suspending) Parliament for five weeks ahead of the Brexit deadline, a move later ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court. Despite this setback, Johnson secured an 80-seat majority in the December 2019 snap election, enabling him to pass a revised Brexit deal. However, his premiership was marred by scandals, including ‘Partygate’ during COVID-19 lockdowns, and ethical breaches, culminating in a record wave of ministerial resignations in July 2022. Johnson initially refused to resign, which could have led to a constitutional crisis. By 7 July 2022, 62 ministers had resigned from his government and he was unable to find replacements from the House of Commons. He announced his resignation the same day. 

Johnson was succeeded in September 2022 by Liz Truss. After taking office on 6 September 2022, she aimed to implement a bold economic agenda focused on tax cuts and deregulation. However, her government’s ‘mini-budget,’ announced by Chancellor Kwasi Kwarteng, included unfunded tax cuts that spooked financial markets, causing the Pound to plummet and forcing the Bank of England to intervene to stabilise the economy. Amid mounting criticism from within her own party and collapsing public confidence, Truss reversed key elements of her economic plan, sacked Kwarteng, and replaced him with Jeremy Hunt, who essentially dismantled her agenda. Despite these efforts, her authority never recovered. Facing open rebellion from Conservative MPs and deep divisions within her party, Truss resigned on 20 October 2022, marking the end of a deeply turbulent period for the UK. She is the shortest serving prime minister in British history at just 49 days.

The political turmoil during Brexit and the chaotic premierships of Johnson and Truss was a severe test of Britain’s unwritten constitution, which relies on centuries-old documents, conventions, and precedents rather than a single codified text. However, it turned out that it was exactly the flexibility that this system enabled that ultimately allowed it to endure, safeguarding principles like parliamentary sovereignty and judicial independence, demonstrating the remarkable resilience of this constitutional framework amid profound political instability.

Hopefully, you’ve found these examples of political turmoil as fascinating as they are varied. Each case stands out in its own way: the German Weimar Republic, shaped by post-war economic chaos; May 68 in France, driven by powerful social movements; and Britain from 2016 to 2022, where extreme political turbulence tested—and ultimately proved—the resilience of its flexible constitutional framework. These modern examples remind us that politics is often messy and tumultuous—an enduring reality through the ages. And if you think this is chaotic, just wait until you delve into the medieval or early modern periods!

Artie

Minister of History