Introduction
‘Welcome back to my miniseries about the history of Ukraine, which I’ve called Ukraine’s Story, where I will take you through the story of Ukraine’s past, from its earliest unified civilisation in the Kyivan Rus’ (which is what the previous episode was about), and take you all the way up to present day Ukraine and the war going on at the moment. Today’s episode is part two, and will focus on the Mongol Era in Ukraine, which is generally agreed to have begun with the fall of Kyiv in 1240 and lasted for around two and a half centuries until the end of the fifteenth century.’
Decline of Kyivan Rus
‘So by the early thirteenth century, the great state of Kyivan Rus, Eastern Europe’s first unified state, had already begun to decline. As this federation of Rus states had expanded, the local princes of these Rus states, such as Galicia-Volhynia and Chernigov, gained more and more autonomy and began to assert their independence from the central authority of the Grand Prince in in Kyiv, who by this point was Mstislav III. This led to internal conflicts and power struggles among the princes which served to weaken the unity and cohesion of Kyivan Rus.’
The Invasion by the Mongols
‘At the same time as Kyivan Rus was declining, you had the rise and rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire, one of the largest contiguous land empires in history and which originated in present day Mongolia in East Asia. It emerged from nomadic Mongol tribes under the leadership of Genghis Khan and at its height ruled territories from the Sea of Japan all the way around to Eastern Europe.
‘The Mongol invasion of Kyivan Rus started in 1223 when Mongol forces defeated the army of the Rus’ princes at the Battle of Kalka River, in present day Donetsk, Eastern Ukraine. After the defeat, the Grand Prince of Kyiv was executed in a manner that the Mongols reserved for nobility and royalty: without spilling blood. Mtsislav III was, along with his two sons-in-law, wrapped in felt rugs that were appropriate for nobility such as they, and were stuffed underneath the floorboards of the Mongol’s yurt, where they were subsequently crushed to death as the Mongols partied above them drinking and singing through the night.
‘Despite this, the Mongol army didn’t go any further west. This had been more of an intelligence-gathering exercise for the Mongols and it wasn’t until 14 years later in 1237 that the Mongol army, led by Batu Khan, Genghis’ grandson, swept through the region with 40,000 men, attacked many cities across present day Ukraine and established control over the territories. Kyiv was besieged and eventually captured in 1240 and this is generally thought of to mark the end of the Kyivan Rus’ state and the beginning of the Mongol era in Ukraine.’
Under Mongol Rule
‘The Mongols established something called the Golden Horde, which was a Mongol Khanate (or area ruled by a Khan), to rule over the conquered territories of Kyivan Rus. The rulers of these territories were called Tatar princes. The rule of the Mongols came to be known negatively in Ukrainian historiography as the “Tatar Yoke”. This was because they introduced several measures which made life difficult for the people that lived in the former Kyivan Rus. They instituted censuses (where they recorded information about the population) and also taxes and tributes on the conquered lands, which were collected by the Tatar princes. With Kyiv in ruins, Batu Khan established a new capital on the lower Volga called Sarai. All the Kyivan Rus territories submitted to Mongol rule, including Novgorod, Smolensk, Galich and Pskov.
‘During these years, the Tatar khanates conducted raids on the Slavic population in the territories of the former Kyivan Rus, with the intention of trading slaves with the Ottoman Empire. These raids devastated communities, with large numbers killed or taken captive. However, these raids also had the effect of contributing to the development of the Cossack people. Now, the Cossacks formed originally from a diverse group of people including runaway serfs (which were agricultural labourers who had escaped their lord’s estate), criminals, adventurers and the displaced Slavs from the Tatar raids. These people sought refuge in less accessible areas including the steppes of Eastern and Southern Ukraine. A steppe by the way is a landscape characterised by a vast grassland plain without trees. Living on the steppes allowed the Cossacks to adapt to a more mobile and nomadic lifestyle, similar to the nomadic peoples of the region. They became skilled horsemen, adept at survival and warfare on the open grasslands. The steppe provided vast grazing lands for their horses and cattle, and they engaged in both agriculture and livestock breeding to sustain themselves. Over time, the Cossacks expanded their territories through both voluntary migration and military conquest. They gradually moved deeper into the steppe, establishing new settlements and fortifications. Their lifestyle became more intertwined with the steppe environment as they adapted to the challenges and opportunities it presented. The Cossacks became a significant and integral part of Ukrainian history and culture, and I will talk about them lots more over the next episodes.’
Resistance
‘There were some attempts in some Rus territories to resist Mongol rule. One of the most notable was that of Danylo of Halych, who was a prominent figure in the resistance against Mongol rule in Ukraine. He was prince of a western Rus’ territory, which were among the regions most affected by Mongol incursions. Danylo was the prince of Halych (or Galicia) and Volhynia, ruling from 1228 to 1264. After the initial Mongol invasion, he managed to preserve some autonomy and actively resisted Mongol authority. Danylo strategically allied himself with neighbouring states, such as Poland and Hungary, seeking support in his resistance against the Mongols.
‘Danylo’s principality of Halych became a crucial centre of resistance. He fortified the city and successfully defended it against multiple Mongol attacks. Halych remained an important stronghold against Mongol expansion in the western territories of Rus’.
“Danylo pursued diplomatic efforts to secure alliances and support. He sought assistance from European powers, including the Pope and the Kingdom of Hungary, to form coalitions against the Mongols. These diplomatic endeavours aimed to strengthen the resistance movement and provide external aid. Danylo’s resistance efforts and his principality’s defiance of Mongol rule earned him respect and admiration among the local population. His resistance and leadership became symbols of Ukrainian resistance against foreign domination, fostering a sense of national identity and pride.’
Influence on Development and Society
‘During the rule of the Mongols, the development of present-day Ukrainian territory was significantly impacted. Kyiv was basically destroyed and the population was decimated. The city, which had a population of around 50,000 before the invasion, had only about 200 houses left after the invasion. The population of the entire Kyivan Rus territories dropped by half a million from around 7.5 million to 7 million. Kyiv itself took centuries to rebuild. The pre-Mongol era was a period of culture, craft and trade in Rus, but after the invasion, this fell into decline. Cities were thrown into the dark ages. Stone construction ceased for several decades and various complex crafts such as glass jewellery, polychrome glazed ceramics and granulation disappeared.
‘It was at this time that another city in Rus territory began to flourish: Moscow. After Ivan I of Moscow helped the Mongols crush a rebellion by a rebel prince in 1327, he was granted the title of Grand Prince of Moscow by the Tatars. Therefore, the Muscovite prince became the chief intermediary between the Mongol overlords and the Rus’ lands, which paid further dividends to Muscovy (or the Grand Duchy of Moscow). The Mongols respected Muscovy and left it alone and so it attracted a lot of nobles who moved there permanently because it was stable in comparison to other Rus’ territories. Some historians argue that without the Mongol destruction of Kyivan Rus, the Rus would not have unified into the Tsardom of Russia and, therefore, the Russian Empire would not have risen.
‘The trade routes to the East through Rus made the territory a centre for trade. Whilst Mongol influence was destructive, it had a long term effect on the rise of modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Mongol rule also fostered cultural exchanges between the Mongols and the local population. While the Mongols imposed their own customs and practices, there was also a blending of cultures, leading to the adoption of certain Mongol elements in Ukrainian society such as a standardised tax system. The Mongols also encouraged agricultural development in Ukraine. They introduced new crops and farming techniques, such as the cultivation of rice and the use of irrigation systems, which contributed to the agricultural productivity of the region.’
End of the Mongol Era
‘Like the Kyivan Rus, however, the Mongols’ rule was not to last in Ukraine, and it started to decline in the second half of the fifteenth century. The Golden Horde, the collection of khanates that made up the Mongol rule of the former Kyivan Rus, also started to fragment and the Ukrainian population, burdened by the heavy tribute system and exploitation under Mongol rule, gradually started rising up against their Mongol overlords. Various uprisings occurred, such as the Tatar-Mongol uprisings led by Dmytro Vyshnevetsky and Ivan Pidkova in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. These uprisings further destabilised Mongol control in Ukraine.
“There was also the rise of regional powers such as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, which would eventually come to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and which will be the next era of Ukraine that this miniseries shall focus on.’
Outro
‘Thank you very much for listening to this second episode of Ukraine’s Story, and I look forward to talking to you about the next tumultuous and exciting chapters in Ukraine’s history. See you next time, goodbye.’