Intro
‘Welcome back to another episode of Ukraine’s Story, a series about the history of Ukraine as a nation. Last time we talked about the creation of the Ukrainian People’s Republic (UPR), the social and political situation, and the unification of UPR with the West Ukrainian People’s Republic (the ZUNR). Today we are going to talk about the Soviet period in the history of Ukraine, which lasted for seventy years, and had profound impacts on Ukrainian and world history.’
The Ukrainian USSR
‘Following prolonged and intense conflicts with Soviet forces and the Polish army, Ukrainians grew weary of the relentless military engagements that plagued their homeland. Initially, the ZUNR succumbed to the Polish army, and the situation became further entangled with the decisions made at the Versailles Peace Conference. This conference acknowledged Poland’s authority to occupy Eastern Galicia. Subsequently, the Treaty of Saint-Germain was finalised in 1923, delineating territorial changes that saw Bukovyna incorporated into Romania and Transcarpathia becoming part of Czechoslovakia.
‘Meanwhile, on 6 January 1919, the provisional Soviet government declared the establishment of the “Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic” or the Ukrainian SSR. The Council of People’s Commissars became the primary governing body. Nevertheless, the remnants of the Ukrainian army persisted in their aspiration to reclaim control over Ukrainian territories. By 30 August, Kyiv had been reclaimed by the Ukrainian army. The UPR also forged a collaborative agreement to resist the Soviet army. However, the Polish regime intensified pressure on the Ukrainians. Fatigued and worn out by endless war, as they had been so much throughout their history, some Ukrainians started to align with the Soviet army. The Soviet-Polish War on Ukrainian soil endured from 1919 to 1920. This subsequently led to the Riga Peace Treaty, which outlined territorial divisions that saw Poland retaining Western Volhynia, Eastern Galicia, the Kholm region, and Podlasie. Despite efforts by Ukrainian patriots to mount military operations, such as the final winter campaign of 1921, it culminated in the defeat of Ukrainian forces. Following this, the armed struggle of UPR troops for Ukrainian independence came to an end. The Soviet Union asserted control over most of Ukraine, with the Ukrainian SSR’s accession to the Soviet Union occurring in three stages and by May 1925, the integration of the Ukrainian SSR into the wider USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was completed.
‘Ukraine’s economic situation found itself in a challenging position, primarily as a result of economic devastation, political instability, and the severe famine of 1921-1923, triggered by a catastrophic drought. In response to these challenges, the Soviet government introduced the New Economic Policy, abbreviated as NEP. Its objective was to reestablish the authority of the Soviet government among the population and reconstruct the country’s economy. The NEP permitted the existence of elements of a market economy and commodity-money relations. This policy endured from 1922 to 1928. However, the NEP was a contentious strategy marked by a grain procurement crisis, a sales downturn, the expropriation of land from affluent peasants, substantial taxes constraining profit possibilities, and a low standard of living in rural areas. The policy also entailed privileges for party workers, repression of private owners, and a trajectory towards industrialization and collectivization of agriculture.
‘Another pivotal element was the indigenization policy, designed to garner support for the communist government from the local population. In Ukraine, this policy was enacted through “Ukrainisation.” The desire to cultivate a positive perception of Soviet authority was facilitated through the integration of the Ukrainian language into governmental institutions. Schools and higher education facilities were also allowed to reintroduce Ukrainian. The ongoing process of Ukrainisation did not adversely impact the interests of the Russian-speaking population, a development welcomed by Ukrainian activists. This era witnessed a prolific output of Ukrainian-language literature, fostering the flourishing of art and literature. Notably, Ukrainian cinema experienced significant growth, with the establishment of the Odesa Film Studio in 1922 and the founding of the Kyiv Film Studio in 1928.
‘The USSR’s economic lag behind the world’s leading nations, coupled with the political and strategic objectives of the Soviet leadership, prompted a decision to expedite industrialization. As early as 1929, Forced Industrialization was declared, with funding sourced from agriculture and light industry, resulting in uneven economic development. After Stalin’s rise to power in 1924, the Soviet Union saw an escalation of collectivization in rural areas, dekulakization (the elimination or exile of affluent landowners), and the introduction of five-year plans, outlining production targets for heavy or light industry over a five-year period. These measures were accompanied by widespread oppression of the Ukrainian population. In an attempt to deflect blame, Stalin published an article in 1930 titled “Dizziness from Success,” accusing local leaders of exaggerating collectivisation achievements.
‘Collectivisation was predominantly enforced, restricting individuals from leaving collective farms. Stalin’s repression extended to the Ukrainian language and culture, facing extensive bans. The 1930s are often referred to as the “Executed Renaissance” period, marked by the massacre of Ukrainian writers, patriots, and kobzars (which were people who played a special Ukrainian stringed instrument), with the kobza instrument declared a class-enemy. In 1937, 1111 prisoners of the Solovetsky camp, including numerous Ukrainian activists and writers, were executed in the Sandromakh tract (in Karelia). A campaign to eradicate religion was instituted, and “socialist realism” was imposed in music and art.
‘Simultaneously, the western Ukrainian territories grappled with national oppression, fostering the emergence of an increasing number of Ukrainian political parties. Amidst this environment, economic progress and agrarian reforms were taking place. Industries that didn’t demand substantial capital investment, including oil production, food processing, and woodworking, were experiencing growth.’
The Holodomor 1932-1933
‘One of the deep scars of the Soviet era in Ukraine is that of the so-called Holodomor, or “death by hunger”, and I have already done a whole episode about this catastrophe in the first season of The History Buff. However, it is so deeply woven into Ukraine’s collective memory and trauma from the time, that it should be mentioned now in the Ukraine’s Story series.
‘The Holodomor was caused by the Soviet government’s efforts to subdue the Ukrainian peasantry, who resisted collectivisation. Collectivisation was a Soviet policy that entailed consolidating individual farms into collective farms, pooling land and resources under state control, with an aim of achieving greater agricultural efficiency, increased productivity, and facilitating the implementation of socialist economic policies. Another contributing factor was the imposition of unrealistic grain procurement quotas for peasants, coupled with the confiscation of food reserves and the exportation of harvested grain abroad. On 7 August 1932, the “Law of Five Ears of Grain” was enacted, authorising execution or imprisonment for property theft. Ukrainian villages falling short of grain procurement targets were documented on “black boards,” and blockades were enforced to hinder people from escaping. Soviet soldiers meticulously searched every corner of homes, confiscating all food, resulting in mass starvation and widespread fatalities among Ukrainians. Entire villages were decimated, and individuals from distant Russian regions resettled in these vacated homes to replace the deceased Ukrainians.
‘According to diverse estimates, the famine claimed the lives of 3 to 5 million Ukrainians. The regions of Donetsk, Kharkiv, Dnipro, and Odesa bore the brunt of devastation. The famine terror served as a grim culmination to the process of collectivisation, solidifying the establishment of the collective farm system.
‘The Holodomor of 1932-1933 was a deliberately organised form of terror, serving as a tool for both physical and moral coercion on society—a cruel method of implementing Soviet policy. On October 12, 2023, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution recognising the Holodomor as an act of genocide aimed at the destruction of the Ukrainian nation. Despite historical reluctance from much of the world to acknowledge the Holodomor as genocide, this period remains one of the most tragic chapters in Ukraine’s history. Traditionally, Holodomor Remembrance Day is observed on the fourth Saturday of November, marked by Ukrainians lighting candles in their windows as a symbolic act of mourning. The memory of this horrific and violent episode perpetrated by the Soviet government is indelibly etched in the collective consciousness of Ukrainians, ensuring it will never be forgotten.’
Ukraine during the Second World War
‘During World War II, Ukraine endured significant hardship. Notably, the Soviet-German Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty, played a crucial role. Exploiting the agreement, the Soviet government occupied nearly all of western Ukraine in 1939, and in 1940, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovyna were annexed into the Ukrainian SSR. However, Germany breached the pact and launched an attack on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941.
‘Ukrainian patriots perceived this moment as an opportunity to reclaim Ukrainian statehood. Some Ukrainians, hopeful that Hitler’s Germany would assist in achieving independence, enlisted in the German SS unit in Galicia. Concurrently, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) was being established to resist both the Nazis and Communists. Key figures leading the UPA included Roman Shukhevych and Stepan Bandera. Despite accusations of fascism in Russian propaganda, it overlooks the fact that Stepan Bandera spent several years in Nazi concentration camps. After the proclamation of the restoration of the Ukrainian state in Lviv on June 3, 1941, Bandera and other OUN (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists) members were apprehended by Nazi forces.
‘In general, the Soviet army swiftly retreated from Ukraine, but starting from early 1943, a series of counteroffensive operations took place. On October 28, 1944, the entire territory of Ukraine was liberated. Subsequently, Soviet authorities continued their pursuit of the OUN and UPA organisations, which had intensified their insurgency against the communist regime. In 1950, Roman Shukhevych was assassinated, and in 1959, in Munich, Soviet special services killed Stepan Bandera, who was hiding from Soviet authorities there. Estimates suggest that between 7 and 10 million Ukrainians lost their lives as a result of the Second World War, and nearly 700 cities and 28,000 villages were destroyed. Operation Vistula in 1947, aimed at undermining the support for the OUN and UPA among the local population, led to the resettlement of Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish lands to the western lands of Poland.
‘Following the war, Stalin implemented a new emphasis on heavy industrialization, triggering a significant migration of people from rural areas to urban centres. This shift contributed to the decline of rural regions. The unbalanced policy, coupled with the extensive export of food products, led to a new famine in 1946-1947, resulting in the tragic deaths of 800,000 to 1 million Ukrainians. Stalin’s authoritarian rule did not bring about economic and social advancement in the Ukrainian SSR; instead, it witnessed the repression and torture of tens of thousands of Ukrainians, with hundreds of thousands succumbing to the inhumane consequences of his policies.’
Ukraine in the second half of the 20th century
‘Following Joseph Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev assumed leadership of the USSR, and his era became known as the Khrushchev Thaw. During this period, many political prisoners were granted amnesty, and the grip of the totalitarian regime loosened. Notably, Ukrainians assumed leadership roles in the Ukrainian SSR for the first time in its history. However, the social, political, and economic landscape of Ukraine remained ambiguous. Ambitious agricultural programs failed to yield positive results, and though the social situation showed some improvement, challenges persisted. A dissident movement began to take shape, and laws were enacted to “strengthen the connection of school with life and the further development of the public education system.” In 1954, a decision was made to officially incorporate Crimea into the Ukrainian SSR.
‘Subsequently, until the mid-1980s, the Ukrainian economy prioritised the development of heavy industries, encompassing coal, the processing of iron and other metals, and energy. However, this focus also resulted in environmental challenges. The Ukrainian economy operated to fulfil the needs of the Soviet system, imposing limitations on regional development and autonomy. Despite this, Ukrainian culture and literature flourished during this period, with the emergence of talented poets, writers, and artists. However, cultural development was constrained by state censorship and control. Education was tailored to Soviet standards, with censorship prevalent in universities and scientific research.
‘In the social sphere, there were notable achievements, including improvements in housing, healthcare, education, and urban infrastructure. Nevertheless, persistent social problems such as shortages of goods, unequal access to certain services, and fluctuating living standards continued to persist.’
Final thoughts
‘During the era of Stalin’s repressions and the challenges of the Second World War, Ukraine endured difficult times. Despite the sacrifices made, the country managed to develop, albeit at a slower pace. However, the subsequent Soviet government’s policies were controversial, and the measures implemented did not yield the desired results promptly. Importantly, heavy-handed Soviet repression contributed to the suppression of information and hindered transparency. This suppression culture continued, and one of the most significant disasters in history—the Chornobyl nuclear accident of 1986—was shrouded in secrecy, preventing timely and accurate information about the catastrophe from being released to the public. This lack of transparency had far-reaching consequences for the affected population and the environment. Join us in the next episode, where I will be discussing the Chornobyl disaster and its effects with a fellow history buff.’
Outro
‘But that’s it for the Soviet era of Ukraine’s Story. Many thanks for listening and see you next time. See you next time and slava Ukraini!’