Ukraine’s Story (Part 8): The Chornobyl Disaster

Intro

‘Welcome back to Ukraine’s Story – a History Buff series in which we chart Ukraine’s national story, from the mediaeval Kyivan Rus right up to independence and the current Russo-Ukrainian War. In today’s episode of Ukraine’s Story, we’re going to talk about one of the biggest man-made disasters in history, the Chernobyl disaster, or in Ukrainian, the Chornobyl disaster. Listen as we talk about that fateful night in April 1986, and then the immediate fallout and its consequences for Ukraine, the wider Soviet Union and the world.’

Pripyat and the Chernobyl Power Plant

‘The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station was opened in 1977 near the newly-built town of Pripyat, about 100km north of Kyiv, near the border with the Belorussian SSR. The sole purpose of Pripyat was to house the workers of the power station and their families. It was a model Soviet town and had higher living standards than most of the USSR, with its shops fully stocked and its workers well-paid. By 1980, Pripyat had around 50,000 inhabitants.

‘During the Cold War, the competition between the Soviet Union and United States led to various technological and scientific advancements, with the Space Race as one other particular example. Nuclear energy stood at the heart of the USSR’s energy policy, serving as a symbol of Soviet technological prowess and energy independence. The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station was built as part of this policy, and by 1984, four of the Soviet Union’s most advanced reactors, the RBMK-1000, were in operation at Chernobyl, and were producing 10% of Ukraine’s energy.’

The night of the accident

‘The disaster occurred on the night of 25-26 April 1986, and all began with a scheduled safety test on Reactor 4. The test aimed to assess turbine functionality during a power loss scenario. The reactor crew, in preparation for the test, initiated a routine shutdown, inadvertently setting the stage for a catastrophic sequence of events.

‘During the test preparation, operators made critical errors, including the disabling of automatic shutdown mechanisms and safety systems. These actions left the reactor in a vulnerable state, lacking essential safeguards. Control rods, intended to shut down the reactor, were inserted as part of the safety test, but a design flaw in the RBMK-1000 reactor exacerbated the situation.

‘The RBMK reactor’s positive void coefficient, which was a design flaw and is too complicated to go into detail about, played a pivotal role. But basically, as steam production increased, it created a positive feedback loop, causing an uncontrollable power surge rather than the expected shutdown. The reactor rapidly reached a critical state, and at 01:23 am, there was a devastating steam explosion that ruptured the reactor vessel and blasted the 1000 tonnes roof off of the reactor. People often think this was a nuclear explosion, but it wasn’t. It was an explosion of steam within the reactor core. This catastrophic event released plumes of radiation and burning, radioactive debris into the atmosphere. Seconds later there was a second explosion, this time from hydrogen, which hurled out additional radioactive fuel. One worker was killed instantly in the explosion: Valery Khodemchuk, whose body was never found. Another worker, Vladimir Shashenok, was badly injured in the explosion and died from his injuries later that same day.

‘Some residents of Pripyat, 16km away from the power station, were awoken by the explosions and looked out of their windows to an eerie spectacle that would haunt their memories forever. The night sky bore an unusual and ominous sight – a piercing beam of light sticking straight up through the darkness into the night sky. Unbeknownst to the inhabitants, this surreal phenomenon was a manifestation of the intense radiation emanating from the exposed reactor core. Little did they realise that this extraordinary spectacle marked the beginning of an unprecedented nuclear disaster that would shape the course of their lives and the region’s history for decades to come.

‘Back at the power station, the brave firefighters arrived promptly to combat the blaze, unaware of the heightened radiation. They had no idea what they were facing, and lacked proper protective gear, and many of them succumbed to acute radiation exposure, with the death toll reaching 30 in the following weeks. Eyewitness accounts from the firefighters described the radiation as having a metallic taste, causing pain akin to pins and needles on their faces. Reactor No. 3 was not shut down until 5am the following day, while Reactors No. 1 and 2 were shut down 24 hours later. The Soviet government mobilised troops to the scene, dropping them onto the reactor’s rooftop to remove debris and cool the exposed reactor with water. This intense effort took nearly two weeks to extinguish all fires, employing materials like sand, lead, and nitrogen.’

Evacuation and liquidation

‘Starting from 27 April, helicopters poured extinguishing mixtures into the ruptured reactor, with the fire eventually subdued after approximately ten days. The extinguishing compounds formed a layer at the bottom of the fourth power unit, ranging from 1 to 15 metres in thickness. The next day, on 27 April, at 13:00, evacuation orders were broadcast on the radio in Pripyat and from trucks driving around the city, prompting the city’s division into five sectors. Every residence underwent visits with detailed explanations of evacuation procedures. Residents were advised to close windows, turn off electrical appliances, and shut down water and gas. The evacuation commenced at 14:00, concluding by 16:00, ensuring the swift relocation of the population away from the impending nuclear threat.

‘A military-enforced thirty-kilometre “exclusion zone” was established around Chernobyl and Pripyat, with soldiers and specialists actively engaged in the accident’s cleanup efforts, working in shifts to manage radiation exposure. The construction of the concrete “Sarcophagus” or “Shelter Object” over the fourth power unit took place from May to December, marking a significant step in containing the radioactive aftermath. The extensive cleaning operation lasted a year, and involved a total of approximately 600,000 so-called “liquidators” consisting of civil and military personnel.’

Cover up

‘Despite being the era of Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet leader who introduced the perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) policies, the Soviet government was driven by anxiety for its authority. It therefore concealed the catastrophic Chernobyl disaster for two days after the radioactive cloud had already spread over Europe. It was only when radioactivity was detected in the West, in Sweden, that the Soviet Union was forced to come clean and announce that an accident had indeed taken place. The Soviet leadership orchestrated marches and demonstrations across the Soviet Union under the guise of celebrating “International Workers’ Solidarity Day” on 1 May, aiming to prevent panic and project an image of normalcy to the world. Despite radiation levels in Kyiv and numerous Ukrainian cities being ten times higher than the background level, the political elite justified the delay by citing concerns about avoiding public panic.

‘On 8 July 1986, the Soviet leadership issued a directive to classify all details of the Chornobyl accident. This secrecy extended to concealing the causes of the accident, the composition of the released radiation, and the nature of the mixture involved. To protect party members and those closely connected to the leadership, a secret instruction advised against visiting open recreation areas, recommended closing windows and doors, and emphasised thorough cleaning of outerwear and shoes before leaving the house. Archival documents revealed previous accidents at the Chornobyl nuclear power plant, including releases from the first power unit in 1982 and emergency breakdowns at the third and fourth units. Despite these incidents, all three units, except for the fourth, had resumed operation as of 1987.

‘The Soviet leadership not only concealed the immediate accident but also classified documents related to the Chornobyl NPP project for many years. Investigation results, including those from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), exposed violations and non-compliance with safety measures during the construction of the power units. The truth about the design flaws of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant only surfaced after the collapse of the Soviet Union and subsequent inquiries. Nevertheless, responsibility is also attributed to the Chornobyl NPP maintenance staff, who continued experiments at the plant in disregard of safety regulations. The negligence and indifference of the Soviet leadership exposed approximately 10 million citizens of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia to significant radiation, resulting in the deaths of thirty workers and firefighters due to extensive radiation exposure several months after the explosion.’

Consequences

‘The global count of individuals who received minor exposure due to the movement of the radioactive cloud remains unknown. The release of radiation contaminated 5 million hectares of land, leading to the establishment of a thirty-kilometre exclusion zone around and within the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Fallout settled on meadows, forests, and rooftops, affecting wildlife, with special Soviet hunting teams tasked to cull infected animals and prevent radiation spread beyond the exclusion zone. Notably, lichens and reindeer meat in Arctic regions of Russia, Norway, Finland, and Sweden contain elevated levels of cesium-137.

‘The large-scale release of radioactive substances had profound effects on human health. In Europe alone, more than 10,000 newborns with pathological diseases were reported after the fateful day of 26 April 1986. Of the 600,000 liquidators involved in the cleanup efforts, approximately 10% succumbed to the consequences, while the rest were left disabled. The incident resulted in 134 cases of acute radiation sickness. The incidence of cancer, leukaemia, infant mortality, and hereditary diseases experienced a surge among the global population in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster.’

Situation today

‘What’s the situation today you might ask? Well, the Chornobyl nuclear power plant, inactive since 1995, stands as a symbol of the devastating consequences of the 1986 disaster. In a monumental engineering feat, a new sarcophagus, officially known as the “New Safe Confinement,” was slid into place over the remnants of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant in November 2016. This massive steel structure, designed to contain and confine the radioactive materials within the deteriorating original shelter, stands 108 metres tall and spans a length of 257 metres. The construction of the new sarcophagus, which took years of planning and collaboration among various international partners, aimed to enhance the safety and stability of the site for the long term. The project ensures the ongoing protection of the environment and surrounding communities by preventing the release of radioactive contaminants from the deteriorating reactor, marking a crucial step in managing the aftermath of the Chornobyl disaster.

‘Despite the exclusion zone, the area has experienced a resurgence of biodiversity due to reduced human interference. Notable flora and fauna, including endangered species, have found a refuge in the abandoned surroundings. The Chornobyl reserve, established to protect the environment, has attracted scientific researchers and curious tourists alike. I myself went there when I visited Ukraine in summer 2020, and it was one of the most incredible experiences of my life. People say “isn’t it so dangerous?” but no, it’s not. They give you a gigometer which tells you how much radiation you absorb by the end of the day, and mine was negligible. So once Ukraine has won the war, please do go and take a visit. I will put more photos and videos from my trip on The History Buff Patreon.

‘The aftermath of the 2023 Russian invasion brought additional challenges to Chornobyl. Russian forces occupied the site, causing damage to radiation monitoring equipment and laboratories crucial for ongoing research. The invaders’ activities also led to a heightened risk of radiation exposure for both military personnel and the environment. Following their departure, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and European partners initiated efforts to assess and mitigate the impact of the occupation, replacing damaged equipment and offering technical support.

‘In response to the crisis, 12 countries rallied through the international network for emergency preparedness and response to nuclear disasters. The collaborative efforts aimed to assist Ukraine in addressing the challenges posed by the occupation, emphasising the importance of international cooperation in managing the long-term consequences of nuclear incidents.’

Final thoughts

‘A fierce topic of debate these days is whether the Chornobyl disaster helped hasten the collapse of the Soviet Union, which occurred 5 years later in 1991. I personally think it undoubtedly contributed to the USSR’s economic woes at the time, as it had to fork out 18 billion roubles – around $68 billion in 2019 – for the clean up operation. It also led to a rift between the Kyiv and Moscow Communist Party bosses, which probably further exacerbated Ukraine’s push for independence from Moscow 5 years later. I think more than anything though, it is symbolic. Symbolic of a state where disinformation and fear of questioning authority were so tightly wound into the fabric of the system, that eventually it would reach boiling point and something would have to give. 

‘The initial concealment of the disaster underscored a culture of secrecy, eroding trust in the Soviet regime. Design flaws and safety negligence reflected a top-down management style with little regard for accountability. The economic strain from containment efforts and the tarnished international reputation exacerbated the challenges that hastened the Soviet Union’s decline. Chornobyl stands as a stark symbol of the internal decay and external pressures that led to the unravelling of the Soviet system.’

Outro

‘Thank you for listening to this episode on the Chornobyl disaster. Please join us next time when we talk about the collapse of the Soviet Union and Ukraine’s first steps as an independent nation in the nineties and early 2000s. Until then, goodbye and slava ukraini.’